Introduction
Today, the ancient harbor city of Patara is within the borders of Ovagelemiş village, in the Kaş district of Antalya province. In antiquity, the city was located at the point where the Xanthos Valley reaches the sea in Western Lycia, located in southwest Asia Minor. The metal military equipment that is the subject of this study was found on Tepecik settlement, a natural rock elevation measuring 30 meter-high and with a base width of approximately 280 x 300 m, located to the north of the Patara city center and the inner harbor. (fig. 1, 2). The primary reason why this natural hill was particularly chosen as a settlement of defense is its location overlooking both the eastern “inner harbor” which bears the characteristics of a military port and the passageway that constitutes the only northerly land route reaching out to the city. In other words, one can say that a military settlement situated on this hill features the best location for defending Patara from potential attacks coming from the sea and the natural passageway in the north[1] .
The ceramic fragments, stone axes and terracotta figurines that were recovered in Tepecik and are dated back to the Early Bronze Age bear the traces of Patara’s oldest settlement. The continuity of these small finds can also be traced back to the Early Iron Age[2] . On the site, the earliest architectural data are dated to the 6th century B.C. These architectural remains generally belong to the towers or walls associated with the defense system. The defense system of Tepecik settlement was used from the second half of the 6th century B.C. to the 4th/3rd centuries B.C. with various alterations[3] . It is perceived that no reconstruction activity was carried out from the 2nd century B.C. to the end of the Roman Imperial Period. As for the tower built in the 4th/5th centuries, it must have functioned as an “outpost” for defending Patara city of the Late Antiquity, the defense frontiers of which had been narrowed down[4] .
In the Tepecik settlement[5] that constituted one of the significant defense points from the Archaic Period onwards, a Tower House that is also named as the Building Complex[6] (Fig. 3 Quad: N13–N15, M13–M15), a terrace wall with cyclopean masonry situated west of Tepecik from the Archaic Period and a Northern Bastion - Defense Wall dating back to the Late Classical-Early Hellenistic Periods[7] (Fig 3 Quad: Bastion, L19, L20, K19, K20; Wall, J19, K19, L19), and foundation remains of multiple dwellings located inside the said defense wall were unearthed[8] Fig. 3 Quad: H17, H18, I17-I19, İ17-İ19, J17-J19, K17-K19, L18, L19). There is also a structure with a depth of about 21 m, which may be a shaft tomb(?) (Fig. 3 K-18-2)[9] . The remains of a tower dating to the Late Antique Period were located at the northwestern part of Tepecik’s upper plane (Fig. 3 Quad: H-18)[10]. In all these contexts, we found some military equipment made of bronze, iron and lead. The contexts where the metal military equipment, the essential subject of this study, was acquired in the Tepecik settlement that had been used for defensive purposes continuously from the 6th century B.C. to the 3rd century B.C. provide reliable data in terms of both defining the places and chronology.
2. Typology of the Metal Military Equipment
Uncovered in the Tepecik settlement, which contained structures of defense from the Archaic Period to the Late Roman Imperial Period, as shown by the architectural remains, the metal military equipment is of vital importance in terms of both quantity and typological diversity. The said metal military artifacts comprise numerous categories, such as an iron pilum, bronze and iron arrowheads, iron bolt-heads / spear butts, iron javelin heads, a trigger claw of a catapult, lead sling bullets, and an iron curved dagger. Each of these metal weapons is examined below under sub-headings and sub-types by taking the alterations observed in their usage or form -if any- into consideration. The material from which the equipment was made is also considered and stated in the titles.
Pilum (cat. 1; fig. 4, 7)
Pilum is a kind of close-range javelin ranking among the equipment used by the Roman legionaries in not only the Imperial Period but also the Republican Period[11]. It is typically composed of an iron shank with a bilobate or pyramidal head and a wooden shaft connected to it[12]. Preserving its basic morphological details but also undergoing changes in terms of design and dimensions[13], this multifunctional javelin family was used as military equipment on battlefields from the end of the 3rd century B.C. to the end of the Roman Imperial Period[14].
Modern typological analyses primarily pay attention to the connection system of the pilum iron with the wooden shaft, and secondarily consider the shape of the tip of the iron. In a general overview, two different types of pila can be identified regarding the joint of the iron and wooden components-, tanged and socketed pila[15]. Both tanged and socketed specimens have heads with bilobate or pyramidal forms to damage enemy equipment. Reconstruction proposals show that pila have a length varying between 1,5 and 2 meters and an approximate weight of 2 kg[16]. In describing the Roman army assembled in the second half of the 2nd century B.C., Polybius states that each legionary soldier had two pila, one light and one heavy[17]. Researchers tend to think that the heavy pilum defines the tanged type and the light pilum defines the socketed type[18].
The pilum iron uncovered in Patara (cat. 1) is an example of the tanged pila. The total length of this pilum iron (including the tip, shaft and tang) is 41 cm. The tang plate is 11 cm long and 4,6 cm wide, while the head is 5,2 cm long and 2,5 cm wide. It features a two-winged flat head. The pilum iron’s body has a round section. There are two rivets on the flat tang which has a quadrangular form with rounded edges. Remnants of the wooden shaft used for conjoining the pilum iron can be seen on the tang. Because of these characteristics, cat. 1 can be regarded as falling within the tanged type class, or the “heavy pila” class which is another widely-accepted title.
The oldest examples of heavy/tanged pila are known from Italy - Talamonaccio (Telamon)[19], Spain – Castellruf[20], Numantia[21] and Slovenia – Šmihel[22]. All of those examples are dated to the late 3rd century B.C. and the early 2nd century B.C.[23] The pila with tangs contracting inwards on both sides (hourglass shaped) is known from Greece – Ephyra[24], probably dating back to the mid-2nd century B.C.[25] A pilum from Anatolia, which is similar to our specimen, was found in Kurul Fortress in Ordu and dated to the Hellenistic Era[26]. Cat. 1 was recovered from the fill of the Shaft Tomb (?) in the Tepecik settlement. The ceramics and sealed amphora handles from that fill are dated to the middle of the 2nd century B.C. at the latest, thus constituting a TAQ for cat. 1. When we evaluate the pilum along with both the contextual data and the similar examples, it is possible for us to date it between the end of the 3rd century B.C. and the middle of the 2nd century B.C.
Arrowheads
In the assessment of the arrowheads found in the Tepecik settlement, the material of which they are made is primarily taken as a criterion: Bronze and iron. On the other hand, morphological characteristics are taken into consideration when designating the typology of the arrowheads. The number of wings on the arrowhead, the structural property of the section attaching the arrowhead to the shaft (tanged or socketed), and the shape of the body compose the three fundamental criteria used for discerning their typology.
Bronze Arrowheads
Type A: Socketed Trilobate Arrowheads (cat. 2-7; fig. 4, 7)
A trilobate arrowhead[27] consists of three sharp and protruding wings/blades that are generally placed around an imaginary line drawn from the center to the tip of the socket or the tang with a distance of 120⁰ between them at in equal angles. In tanged trilobate arrowheads, the section between the wings is usually concave. But the same section has a convex structure in socketed trilobate arrowheads, which is a characteristic brought along by the socket[28]. It is recognized that the socketed trilobate type is more resistant against sudden distortions (deformations) that might reduce its penetration ability after being thrown and striking the target, and has the capacity to penetrate reinforced armor. It is observed that trilobate arrowheads were mostly used on the battlefield due to these properties[29].
It is seen that trilobate arrowheads have many variations differing by small alterations beginning from their earliest phase of emergence[30]. In the Tepecik settlement, a total of 6 bronze socketed trilobate arrowheads (cat. 2-7) were found in different findspots and stratigraphic units, and two main types can be discerned primarily according to their body forms.
Type A1: This type is characterized by a trilobate body that broadens upwards from the socket, then contracts and ends with a pointed tip. Two subtypes were identified within the Type A1 group, which differ by small details in their socketshaft connection and/or body shape (Type A1a – Type A1b).
Patara contains a single specimen of type A1a (cat. 2). The body of this socketed trilobate arrowhead is lozenge-shaped, forming a projection point in its approximate center. A large part of the circular socket is within the body. The body is 3.9 cm high and 1.1 cm wide.
The earliest similar examples of this type are preserved in the private collection of Ahmet Köroğlu. The find group indicates that this type of arrowhead was produced in the second quarter of the 7th century B.C.[31] Thousands of bronze socketed trilobate arrowheads in the form of Patara Type A1a and its several variations were found in Persepolis along with numerous piece of military equipment (6th-5th century B.C.)[32]. They are quite prevalent in Greece, especially in the context of the Greco-Persian Wars[33]. This type of arrowhead was also uncovered in the Persian destruction layers of 480/479 B.C. on the North slope of the Acropolis of Athens[34]. Examples dated to the 6th-4th century B.C. from Sardis, one of the important satrapy centers of Anatolia[35], and a good number of specimens dated to 470-300 B.C. from Daskyleion[36] are known[37].
The ceramics and coins recovered from the relevant stratum of trench I-18, where cat. 2 was found, are dated between the last quarter of the 4th century B.C. and the early 3rd century B.C. Both the contextual data and the similar examples make it possible for us to date this arrowhead between the last quarter of the 4th century B.C. and the early 3rd century B.C.
The bodies of the three specimens (cat. 3-5) evaluated within the scope of Type A1b first expand downwards from the tip, then contract with a convex inclination in the center and connect to the socket. In other words, it has approximately an oval form. When it comes to the socket section, it has a long structure. In this context, it differs from the lozenge-shaped TypeA1a example. Another significant difference is that its socket is slightly longer and more distinctive.
As noted above, the arrowheads falling within Type A1a and its variant Type A1b groups (or vice versa) were widely used in Mesopotamia as of the 7th century B.C. and in Anatolia, Greece and Egypt after this date. A high number of around 3,600 examples of Type A1b trilobate arrowhead and their variations were found in the Treasury Hall at Persepolis[38]. Examples dated to the Middle Achaemenid Period are known from Daskyleion (477-389 B.C.). “Type A1b” and “Type A1a” arrowheads were also found together in the city[39].
Amongst the A1b examples found in Patara, the ceramics and numismatic data within the context that includes cat. 3 and 4 are dated between the second half of the 4th century B.C. and the end of the 3rd century B.C. Found on the surface, cat. 5 should pertain to the 6th to 3rd centuries B.C. in the broadest sense of time.
Type A2: These arrowheads are characterized by three short wings and a small triangular body. The two examples can be found in the Tepecik settlement (cat. 6-7). Having the same form in general terms, these two specimens diverge by slight differences. cat. 6’s body has more straight-angled edges and there is a small hole on its socket-shaft junction. The hole indicates that a small rivet was used to fix the arrowhead on the shaft more securely[40]. A small projection that is preserved on the side of the socket demonstrates that it had a spur on this part. cat.7’s socket is inserted almost directly into the body.
The earliest examples of this type of arrowheads that are dated to the 7th/6th century B.C. are known from kurgans and Eastern European tombs[41]. Numerous examples of this type showing considerable parallelism are known from Anatolia, Hellas, and Egypt beginning in the 6th century B.C. It is understood that these small-sized arrowheads were not substantially preferred after the 4th century B.C[42].
One of the examples of Patara Type A2, cat. 6 was recovered from a stratum where ceramics dated between the second half of the 4th century B.C. and the end of the 3rd century B.C. were found. As for the other arrowhead (cat. 7), it was not found within any contextual data since it was uncovered in the eastern section of the trench. It is estimated that it pertains to the 6th-3rd centuries by means of similar examples.
Type B: Socketed Bilobate Arrowhead with Spur (cat. 8; fig. 4, 7)
In the Tepecik settlement, a single socketed bilobate (two-winged) arrowhead was uncovered (cat. 8). The body of this arrowhead has a bilobate, with a pronounced midrib in its center. The socket extends towards the body following an excurving line, and from this point to its tip, the body of the arrowhead rises on a straight line, taking a triangular form (approximately a rhombus). A single spur on the socket section is preserved in broken condition. Owing to these properties and its original background, cat. 8 falls within the group widely referred to as “Scythian arrowheads” in the current literature.
It is observed that socketed bilobate arrowheads have many variations, particularly in terms of their body forms. While the majority of the examples have spurs, there are also arrowheads bearing all of the other characteristics with the exception of spurs[43]. It is noted that the earliest examples of this type of arrowheads emerged in the Pontic Steppe Area before the rarely-seen trilobate arrowheads in Northern Caucasia, and subsequently dispersed westwards through Anatolia[44]. Drawing close parallel with the body form of cat. 8, socketed two-winged (bilobate) arrowheads with or without spurs are known from the foothills of the northern Caucasus and in the central Dnepr region (the 8th century B.C.)[45], Çavuştepe (end of the 7th century B.C.)[46], Gözlükule-Tarsus[47], Smyrna-Bayraklı (610-545 B.C.)[48], Didyma (the 7th-6th centuries B.C.)[49], Phokaia (Persian destruction layer – 546 B.C.)[50] and Olympia (the 6th-5th centuries B.C.)[51].
Cat. 8 was recovered from the first stratum on the surface of trench J-17. It was found together with artifacts pertaining to several periods from the 6th-5th centuries B.C. to the Late Roman Imperial Period in this sloping stratum. Therefore, cat. 8 must pertain to the 6th-5th centuries, as indicated by similar examples.
Type C: Tanged Bilobate Arrowheads with Leaf-shaped Bodies (cat. 9-14; fig. 4, 7)
The lower part of the arrowhead has a thickened bilateral form. There is a clearly visible concave inclination on the middle axis of the body. From this point, it widens once again, takes a convex form, and ends with a pointy tip on the top. The body has a lozenge-shaped cross-section. This type of arrowheads is defined as having a “leaf-shaped” form in the literature. The tang is solid and has a round cross-section. In the Tepecik settlement, Type C is represented by 6 examples (cat. 9-14)[52]. These examples slightly differ, particularly in the varying concave angles on the side of their bodies.
Olynthus comes to the forefront among the centers where this type was unearthed[53]. It is remarked that a good number of arrowheads found on the “South Hill” might have been used during the Persian attack against Olynthus in 479 B.C. or the occupation of Philip II of Macedon in 348 B.C. However, the current data are not sufficient for deciding which of these two military campaigns corresponds to the arrowheads[54]. Examples from the 6th Century B.C. are known from Daphnae[55]. Examples found on the battlefield of Marathon (479 B.C.)[56] and similar specimens uncovered in Cyprus[57] show that this arrowhead form was widely used in the Classical Period. Examples from Olympia are dated within the 5th-4th centuries B.C.[58] Examples unearthed in Soli-Cyprus are dated prior to the Hellenistic Period[59]. This type of arrowheads, of which Hellenistic examples[60] of which are also known, did not find their way into the military equipment[61] of the Roman Imperial Period.[62]
Arrowheads belonging to the Type C group were found in different contexts in Tepecik. cat. 9 was found in a stratum dated to the third quarter of the 5th century B.C. during the excavations conducted in 2007, and is evaluated accordingly[63]. cat. 10 was found during the North Bastion excavations. Uncovered in a burnt layer upon the packed-earth floor in situ, these ceramics are assessed within the second half of the 4th century B.C.[64] Recovered as part of this find group, a lead sling bullet (cat. 52) also pertains to 334/333 B.C. This arrowhead is dated to 334/333 B.C. in favor of the aforementioned finds found in the building’s destruction layer[65]. The ceramics found within the context where cat. 11 and 12 were also recovered are dated to the second half of the 4th century B.C. As for the two arrowheads found in the aslope field (cat. 13-14) in Tepecik, it is not possible to date them through the contextual data since they were found on the surface during the relevant fieldwork. Therefore, it would be suitable to broadly evaluate them as pertaining to the 5th-2nd centuries B.C.
Type D: Tanged Bilobate Arrowheads with Triangular Bodies (Bossand-barb) (cat. 15-25; fig. 5, 8)
The edges of the triangular body can be slightly convex or straight. The bilobate body ends with pointy barb on both sides. The length of the barbs can vary. A distinct characteristic of this arrowhead type is the triangular boss or swelling at the junction of body and tang. These arrowheads feature a rhomboid cross-section in general. A total of 11 bronze arrowheads (cat. 15-25) that bear Type D properties were found during the excavations conducted in Tepecik. In this group, 5 arrowheads (cat. 15, 19, 21, 22, 25) have straight edges, while the edges of the remaining examples (cat. 16, 18, 20, 23, 24) have a slightly convex structure.
The form features of this type of arrowheads are thought to have a long history[66]. Nevertheless, we can say that they were encountered in many Eastern Mediterranean centers beginning in the 6th century B.C. It was noted that arrowheads of a similar typology, which had been unearthed during Nif Mountain (Olympus) excavations, could be dated to the 8th-6th centuries B.C. with the addition of the information that similar specimens had been used for a long time[67]. The examples found in Olynthus are associated with the Persian invasion of 479 B.C. or the 348 B.C. battle when Philip II laid waste to the city[68]. Examples from Samaria Sebaste[69] assessed within the same dates as Olynthus, from Corinth[70] that are dated to the 4th century B.C., and from Salamis[71] and Delos[72] which rank among the finds pertaining to the Hellenistic Period demonstrate that these arrowheads were widely used in the 5th-4th centuries B.C. This type of arrowheads were also found in Hellenistic and Roman Imperial Period layers in many centers[73]. All of these arrowheads show that a similar type had been used for a very long time, starting from the Archaic Period at the very least, until well into the Roman Imperial Period without any significant alterations. This is why contextual data is quite important when assessing this type of arrowheads.
Type D specimens are recovered from different areas and various historical contexts in Tepecik. cat. 15 was found in the destruction layer of the North Bastion, along with numerous in-situ finds. This destruction is associated with the military campaign of Alexander the Great and his army in Lycia and Patara in 334/333 B.C.[74] cat. 16 was found in a stratum dated to the second half of the 4th century B.C. The finds found in the same stratum as cat. 17-19 are dated between the end of the 4th century B.C. and the middle of the 3rd century B.C. cat. 20-22 were uncovered in a stratum where ceramics dated to the first half of the 3rd century B.C. were found intensively. And 3 arrowheads (cat. 23-25) were found on the surface of the excavation area.
Iron Arrowheads
Type E: Tanged Arrowheads with Pyramidal Bodies (cat. 26-43; fig. 5, 9)
This arrowhead type has an oblong pyramidal body with a square cross-section and a long, solid tang. Out of the most quantitatively extensive group of arrowheads unearthed in Tepecik, 18 Type E examples (cat. 26-43) were found in total (Many fragments that may belong to this type of arrowheads were also found). All of these examples are made of iron, and the majority of them have lost their original form due to the quickly corroding nature of the material.
Dated to the middle of the 6th century B.C., examples of this arrowhead type[75] are known from various centers, particularly from Gordion[76], Sardis[77], Palea PaphosCyprus[78], Kartaltepe/Bakacaktepe in Thracia[79] and Mount Nif (Karamattepe)[80]. Similar arrowheads were also found on Kolonos Hill which is located at the narrow coastal pass where the Battle of Thermopylae was fought[81]. The specimens recovered at Olympia are dated between the first quarter of the 5th century B.C. and the 4th century B.C.[82] The examples from Olynthus are associated with the Macedonian attacks that occurred in 348 B.C.[83]. The examples identified in Dasykleion[84] are dated to the 4th century B.C. at the earliest[85]. Examples from Arsemeia ad Nymphaios[86] and Pergamon[87] are assessed within the Hellenistic Period. Similar examples from Heraion Teichos are dated between the 2nd century B.C. and the 1st century A.D.[88] Similar arrowheads uncovered in Dura Europos[89] and Allianoi[90] are dated to the Roman Imperial Period. The dates of the specimens found in Smyrna-Bayraklı are unknown since the contextual data were not sufficient for specific dating[91]. Numerous examples unearthed in the medieval centers of the Mediterranean world demonstrate that this iron arrowhead design, in company with its armor penetration ability, had been used for a long time[92].
This arrowhead type was used intensively, especially during the Persian advance towards the west and Alexander the Great’s eastern campaign[93]. However, contextual data once again comes into prominence in dating this type of arrowhead, as well as all the other finds. cat. 26 uncovered in Tepecik was found in the destruction layer of the North Bastion (334/333 B.C.). 7 pieces of Type D arrowheads (cat. 27-33) are dated to the second half of the 4th century B.C. by means of the ceramics found in their strata. 7 other arrowheads (cat. 34-40) were unearthed in the same strata with various finds that are dated between the end of the 4th century B.C. and the middle of the 3rd century B.C. and 3 arrowheads (cat. 41-43) were found within the surface soil in the relevant excavation areas.
Type F: Bolt-heads / Spear Butts (cat. 44-46; fig. 6, 9)
In Tepecik, 3 iron bolt-heads with solid round-sectioned bodies, hollow circular sockets, and pointy conic tips (cat. 44-46) were found. The length of these catapult-bolts varies between 7,4 and 9,5 cm, while their socket diameter ranges from 1,6 to 2,1 cm. Differing from the other arrowheads both dimensionally and gravimetrically, these metal objects are thought to have been used with long-range war machines named ballistas or catapults[94], which were effective for throwing arrows. The catapult-bolt heads that are used with these mechanical war machine have an approximate length of 10 cm. They can be either socketed or tanged. Their bodies have pyramidal, flat, conic, etc. forms. The socketed conic catapult-bolt heads particularly bears a striking similarity with the spear butts[95]. The solid bodies and relatively short socket sections of the Patara examples indicate that they could be used as catapult-bolts. However, it is also possible that they functioned as spear butts. The simplicity of these objects’ dimensions and form makes it hard for us to determine their function indisputably. In fact, their dimensions, weights, and form are rather convenient for being used as both spear butts and artillery bolts without necessarily making any alterations[96].
Bearing resemblance to the Tepecik specimens in terms of form, an example from Sardis was evaluated as a spear butt and dated to the 6th century B.C.[97] In Kurul Fortress in Ordu, 5 examples from the Hellenistic Period, that do not have rivet holes, were assessed as catapult-bolts[98]. Some of the conic spear butts found in the same fortress settlement have a single rivet hole in the sockets[99]. It appears that the conic shape was preferred in spear butts from the Roman Republic Period because of its ease of production. Examples from the Spanish settlements of Cáceres, Numantia, and Caminreal[100] and from Alesia[101] are evaluated within this framework. An example recovered from Cıngırt Kayası in Fatsa-Ordu pertains to the 1st century B.C.[102] 3 examples from Dura Europos show a similar form and are dated to the Roman Imperial Period. It is remarked that the specimens found in this castle settlement are most probably arrowheads since the majority of them are small-sized and no javelin shafts are present within the find context despite the existence of numerous bolt shafts[103].
The present finds make it difficult to determine the function of these socketed iron pieces with pointed tips and conic bodies discovered at Tepecik among military equipment. Furthermore, we must also note that, even if we could define these objects either as spear butts or catapult-bolt heads, there are hardly any criteria present for dating them. However, the other finds falling within the same context as these three examples unearthed in Tepecik considerably helps in terms of dating. Cat. 44 was found during the Western Terrace excavations along with various ceramics from the 4th-3rd centuries B.C. cat. 45 and 46 were uncovered in a stratum that is linked to the destruction of the North Bastion as a consequence of battle. As we mentioned above, these ceramics were evaluated in the second half of the 4th century B.C.[104] Moreover, the destruction phase of the bastion is associated with the military campaign during which Alexander’s legions captured Lycia through a lead sling bullet (cat. 52) found within this find group[105].
Javelin Heads (cat. 47-50; fig. 6, 9)
The javelin and thrusting spear are two different weapon types that are often confused with each other. Their most noticeable distinction is that the thrusting spear is a close-range weapon while the javelin is a long-range military tool. Both made of a metal head attached to a long wooden rod, these two weapons also differ in the length of their metal sections, with the javelin having a 12 to 25 cm long head and the thrusting spear having a 30 to 45 cm long one[106]. Whether it is a javelin or thrusting spear, the metal head can be socketed or tanged. Considering the lengths of the 4 iron specimens recovered during Tepecik excavations (cat. 47-50), it can be discerned that they are javelin heads, all of which are tanged. Two javelin head types can be defined according to their form:
Type A: The body broadens at a sharp angle on the joint section connecting it to the long tang, extends upwards following a triangular shape, and ends with a pointy tip. The long tang is thick and solid. There are 2 examples (cat. 47-48) bearing these characteristics. It is considered that the broad, tanged and leaf-shaped spearheads evolved out of the flat leaf-shaped spears of the Bronze Age. In addition, the use of a solid tang to fix the spearhead onto the wooden shaft instead of a socket is another early characteristic[107]. Similar examples from Olynthus were unearthed on the Southern Hill which bears the traces of an Archaic settlement[108]. In Olympia, specimens that have similar blades but sockets instead of tangs are dated to the 5th-4th centuries B.C.[109] The ceramics found in the same strata with Tepecik javelin heads (cat. 47-48) are dated to the end of the 4th century B.C., and cat. 47-48 pertains to the same era.
Type B: The spearheads referred to as Type B have flat cross-sections. Diagonally widening from the tang, the spearheads contract with a slight inclination at an approximate extent of 1/3, and then take a leaf-shaped form. There are 2 Type B examples, and they differ in small details. Cat. 49 has a narrower tang compared to the width of its body; it has a broader body form. However, cat. 50 has a thick tang section, and a narrower body. Cat. no. 50 has a bulge at the junction of body and tang. This bulge is not the result of corrosion and is not seen on spearheads of this type. Therefore, it is possible that this spearhead may be a production waster or an incomplete spearhead.
Examples featuring similar body forms but sockets instead of tangs are known from Olynthus[110]. The form of a specimen that is found in Kurul Fortress-Ordu, and dated to the Hellenistic Period bears particular resemblance to cat. 50[111]. However, the spearhead unearthed in Kurul Fortress has a socket in contrast to the Patara examples. The cat. 49 javelin head was found together with various ceramics dated to the end of the 4th century B.C. The other javelin head (cat. 50) was uncovered within the 2nd century B.C. context.
Gastraphetes / Catapult Trigger Mechanism Part (cat. 51; fig. 6, 10)
A bronze piece was found in the fill of the cellar of Tepecik settlement’s Tower House. (cat. 51). The middle section of this approximately 9-cm-long component is made of a thick plate. There are two semicircular reciprocal bulges on the upper part of this plate. An iron axle is placed within the holes bored in the center of these bulges. On the lower back of the plate, there is a hook that consist of two prongs. The space between the prongs is wide and a semicircular in form. The upper bulges and the axle must be indicate that the metal part was attached to another mechanism. The deep and semi-circular form between the hooked prongs has an exceptionally convenient structure for placing arrows. These features signify that the metal part may have belonged to a gastraphetes or catapult.[112].
The current information about ancient artillery is based on a limited number of technical literary works[113]. Flourished in the 1st century B.C., Heron of Alexandria remarks that the first catapults were developed by taking the handheld gastraphetes as a source of inspiration and provides a detailed description of this weapon in his work concerning war machines[114]. In this description, he also mentioned the parts of the trigger mechanism of the catapults and summarized its functioning as follows: Heron summarizes the functioning of this trigger mechanism as follows: There are two vertically-riveted iron pillars on the back of the diostra. There is a claw bent downward on the back of the diostra, and the end of the claw is pronged like an abutment. (These pronged indentations are named as skendylion.) The space between the prongs is the section where the arrow shaft is placed. The bowstring is attached to the prongs of the claw, and then the diostra is pulled back. When the tension was sufficient, the arrow was placed in the groove. When the claw is released, the bowstring abruptly disengages from the hooked prongs of the claw, thus throwing the arrow[115].
Heron’s definition of the trigger mechanism component above has a striking resemblance to the metal component discovered in Tepecik (cat. 51). However, it is hard to discern whether this component belongs to a gastraphetes or a non-torsion/ torsion catapult as the latter equipment was devised right after the gastraphetes and has similar trigger mechanisms[116]. Archaeological evidence regarding catapults is rarely found. And these rare finds mostly include metal components since the main parts of the said bow-machine were made of wood[117]. No examples of trigger claws with prong-ended have been found amongst the catapult components recovered during the excavations yet (we have not encountered any during our research, at least). In this sense, we can say that the aforementioned component uncovered in Patara is a rare tangible find associated with the trigger mechanism on which we barely hold information except for Heron’s descriptions[118].The trigger claw with the “skendylion” end is one of the finds unearthed in the cellar of Tepecik Acropolis. The finds recovered from this cellar point to a closed context encompassing the second half of the 4th century B.C. and the first half of the 3rd century B.C., and cat. 51 is evaluated accordingly[119].
Sling Bullets (cat. 52-57; fig. 6, 10)
A total of 6 lead sling bullets (cat. 52-57) were unearthed in the Tepecik settlement. All of these specimens have bi-conic forms but differ in certain details, such as size, weight, cross-section shape, and mold joint traces. Another fundamental difference in their structure is that two of these lead sling bullets have small, perforated holes on them (cat. 52-53)[120]. The remaining five do not bear any symbols or inscriptions, while one bullet has the inscription “ΑΛΕΞΑΝΔΡΟΥ” on one side and “ΦΙΛΙΠΠΟΥ” on the other.
The lead sling bullets[121] produced in molds[122] had various symbols and inscriptions on them from time to time. The inscriptions can be separated into three main groups: The first group comprises demoralizing messages; the second group includes names of the cities or the peoples of the cities; and the third is made up of proper names that were either nominative or genitive, i.e. about ownership. The nominative names include the names of bullet casters or distinguished slingers. When genitive, the inscription on the bullet is interpreted as the name of the ruler/commander who command the attack or the commander of the unit casting the sling bullets[123].
In their study concerning the North Bastion of Tepecik and the relevant finds, E. Dündar and N. K. Rauh emphasize that the aforementioned names inscribed on the sling bullet (cat. 52) might point to Philip II and Alexander III of Macedon[124]. Numerous examples bearing the genitive name of Philip II of Macedon on them are known from the city of Olynthus[125]. Not long ago, a limited number of lead sling bullets came to be known, featuring the name of Alexander the Great in contrast to his father. The “ΑΛΕ” abbreviation on a sling bullet that had most probably been found in Smyrna was interpreted by C. Foss as “Aλε (ξάνδρου)”, who stated that it might be the name of Alexander the Great[126]. An example from Paul Canellopoulos’ collection bears the complete version of this ruler’s name. Attributed to Alexander the Great, this sling bullet has the inscription “Αλεξάνδρου” on one face and the symbol of an eagle with open wings on the other[127]. Another complete version of the name Alexander can be seen on a specimen known from Aetolia[128]. In recent researches, the number of lead sling bullets bearing Alexander the Great’s name has shown an increase. The inscriptions “ΒΑΣΙΛΕ” and “ΑΛΕΞΑΝ” were identified on some of the sling bullets unearthed in the northern Black Sea city Olbia and certain Thracian regions like Dobrudja. These bilaterally inscribed lead sling bullets are also attributed to Alexander the Great[129]. Moreover, 12 lead sling bullets inscribed with the genitive name “Alexander” on one side and “Philip” on the other, just like our example, were found north of the Balkan Mountains (Stara Planina) in northeastern Bulgaria[130]. These specimens which are said to have been recovered many years ago are associated with Alexander the Great’s 335 B.C. campaign in Thrace[131].
The North Bastion, the findspot of this sling bullet, was possibly destroyed during the military campaign commanded by Alexander III in Lycia in 334/333 B.C[132]. In this context, the sling bullet (cat. 52), whose inscriptions can be interpreted as “(of the troops) of Alexander, son of Philip”[133], is dated to 334/333 B.C. when the army of Alexander the Great conquered Lycia. There are no inscriptions on the remaining 5 sling bullets uncovered in Tepecik (cat. 53-57). Two of these sling bullets (cat. 53-54) were recovered from the strata dated to the end of the 4th century B.C. - middle of the 3rd century B.C. The other sling bullets (cat. 55-57) were found on the surface of the relevant findspots, irrespective of each and every context.
Curved Dagger (cat. 58; fig 6, 10)
An iron curved dagger (cat. 58) is one of the significant finds among the military equipment found in Tepecik. The inner part of the hilt (the tang) and blade of this curved dagger are preserved. Whether the short tang was broken or not cannot be determined. The tang has fixing rivets, one on the top and two on the bottom. It is possible to perceive that the concave section of the dagger’s blade was sharpened. However, it cannot be ascertained whether the blade had any decorations on it since it is rather corroded. The residues preserved on the tang of this curved dagger indicate that its handle was made of wood.
Defined as close-range weapons, dagger and sword examples with curved forms have come to be known from rather early periods[134]. Ancient literature, artistic depictions and archaeological evidence demonstrate that many communities utilized daggers and swords with curved blades as military equipment in Antiquity[135]. We did not come across any similar examples of the curved dagger that was found in Tepecik in our literary survey regarding ancient daggers and short swords. In the regions of Thrace and Dacia where curved daggers were most intensely used by warriors as early as the 4th century B.C., daggers of the “sica” type constitute the most widespread dagger group. It can be seen that this dagger type which is named as “sica” gained its general morphological characteristics in the 3rd Century B.C. and had numerous variations with a diversity of details[136].
However, the curved dagger unearthed in Patara differs from this dagger group in not only the form of its tang, but also the thickness of its blade[137]. Hence, we can say that cat. 58 is not a dagger of the “Dacian” sica type. The Patara dagger might be a variation of the curved daggers used by Thracian warriors in the 4th-3rd centuries B.C.[138] It is also known that tribes from the Eastern Balkans had certain links with the western shores of Anatolia and were present in the armies, especially as mercenaries, during the very same period[139]. Therefore, it can be suggested that the curved dagger uncovered in Patara might be a witness to the said links[140]. Nevertheless, this suggestion should be taken as a temporary answer to a hypothetical construct in the absence of similar examples and other archaeological finds that are indisputably established. The data we obtained from the context of the dagger in question gives us the opportunity to provide a more definite answer in terms of chronology. The archaeological context in which the dagger was found points to the second half of the 4th century B.C.
3. General Discussion
Find Groups and Dating
It is deduced that a large part of the military equipment was produced without any significant alterations in their forms for quite a long time, e.g. the aforementioned arrowheads. It is undeniable that the military equipment found in the Tepecik settlement’s various strata which could be reliably dated provides important data in terms of both the history of the Patara city and the chronology of the metal weapons. The bronze, iron, and lead military equipment uncovered in the Tepecik settlement was examined under six main categories and a good number of subtypes that manifested morphological differences—if any.
The first category includes an iron pilum. An important weapon for Roman legionary soldiers, the iron pilum (or the iron of a pilum) (cat. 1) found in Tepecik is remarkable for being a rare military specimen unearthed in Anatolia. Its contextual data indicate that it possibly pertains to the middle of the 2nd century B.C. This dating is also consistent with the pilum types that are known from other settlements of the said period.
Arrowheads constitute the largest group in terms of quantity. It is acknowledged that socketed trilobate arrowheads (cat. 2-7) were used throughout a widespread geography as from the 8th century B.C. almost to the end of the 3rd century B.C. It can be seen that the majority of this arrowhead type which we have examined under subtypes according to their morphological structures in our study was found within contexts dated between the second half of the 4th century B.C. and the end of the 3rd century B.C. The socketed bilobate bronze arrowhead with a spur is dated to the 6th-5th centuries B.C. (cat. 8). This type of arrowhead is traditionally referred to as the “Scythian Type”. However, given the widespread distribution of such arrowheads and their long use, it is difficult to attribute them to an ethnic origin or to indicate cultural interaction. Falling within the subgroup of “tanged bilobate arrowheads with leaf-shaped bodies”, these specimens are generally dated between the 5th century B.C. and the second half of the 4th century B.C. (cat. 9-12) The remaining examples of this type (cat. 13-14) are surface finds. The majority of “tanged bilobate arrowheads with triangular bodies” (cat. 15-22) which are known to have quite a long history were unearthed in cultural layers dated between the second half of the 4th century B.C. and the middle of the 3rd century B.C.
The most intensive group of iron arrowheads uncovered in the Tepecik settlement are tanged arrowheads with pyramidal bodies (cat. 26-43). This type was referred to as the “Cyprus Type” towards the end of the 19th century because of the numerous examples found in the Persian destruction layer at Palea Paphos in Cyprus. However, this kind of arrowheads is one of the most widespread types in the Mediterranean region. Although this type of arrowhead was used for a very long time, it can be understood that they were intensively used, particularly during the Persian advance towards the west in the 6th-5th centuries B.C. and during the eastern campaign of Alexander the Great in the 4th century B.C. Apart from the 3 surface finds (cat. 41-43) falling within this arrowhead group, all of the arrowheads were found in contexts that are dated between the second half of the 4th century B.C. and the first half of the 3rd century B.C. Another group of iron arrowheads may belong to arrows thrown with catapults (cat. 44-46). However, two separate definitions are deliberated out of an abundance of caution since this type has formal properties similar to spear butts. These examples are generally found in the strata of the 4th-3rd centuries B.C.
4 examples found in the Tepecik settlement are defined as javelin heads in view of their dimensions. Each specimen is made of iron, and these specimens are inspected under two subtypes according to their body forms. The examples with approximately triangular bodies (cat. 47-48) pertain to the end of the 4th century B.C. As for the flat leaf-shaped javelin heads (cat. 49-50), they were found in the strata of the 4th to 2nd century B.C.
As a unique and interesting find, a trigger mechanism component that must have been part of a gastraphetes or catapult was found in Tepecik. Heron of Alexandria who lived in the 1st century B.C. mentions a trigger mechanism while describing the basic functioning of the gastraphetes. He notes that the bowstring was attached to the hooked prongs of the claw before straining the bow, and then the arrow was placed into the semicircular space between the prongs, ready to be thrown. Therefore, with both its general structure and its pronged section featuring a semicircular channel in its center, cat. 51 of Tepecik constitutes an example of the trigger claw with the “skendylion” end of the catapults, about which we have hardly any information except for Heron’s depictions. In this sense, it is a very significant find for providing physical evidence of a much-discussed trigger mechanism component. cat. 51 is dated between the second half of the 4th century B.C. and the first half of the 3rd century B.C.
Encountered on nearly every battlefield since the Classical Period, lead sling bullets were also discovered in the Tepecik settlement. 5 out of the 6 sling bullets (cat. 53-57) do not have any inscriptions, emblems or markings, while one sling bullet features the inscription “ΑΛΕΞΑΝΔΡΟΥ” on one side and “ΦΙΛΙΠΠΟΥ” on the other (“Alexander’s” and “Philip’s”, respectively) (cat. 52). These names must be pointing to Philip II of Macedon and his successor Alexander III. Therefore, the reasoning that the findspot of this sling bullet, i.e. the North Bastion was possibly destroyed during the 334/333 B.C. military campaign of Alexander III to Lycia and Patara[141].
Daggers, a type of close-range weapon, are represented by a single example in the Tepecik settlement (cat. 58). The archaeological context of this iron dagger with a curved blade points to the second half of the 4th century B.C.
Historical Background and Military Activity in the Tepecik Settlement
Situated north of the city center, Tepecik played a key role in the control and defense of the harbor and the city owing to its convenient location overseeing both the harbor and the land route. The earliest architectural elements of the defense system are dated to the 6th century B.C.[142] A 2-to-2,5-m fortification wall built up with cyclopean masonry surrounds Tepecik from the west and south. The apical location of the tower house comprising two rooms and a cellar within the fortification wall indicates that it also served defensive functions, most probably. Another early structure for defending the inner harbor are the remains of a tower situated right next to the harbor in the northwest corner of the settlement[143]. Amongst the military equipment found in Tepecik, 5 bronze arrowheads (cat. 5, 7, 8, 9; and 13) can reveal the early defensive quality of the settlement and the relevant military activities of the 6th-5th centuries B.C. However, the exact date of only one arrowhead (cat. 9) could be determined by means of the contextual data (third quarter of the 5th century B.C.). The remaining three arrowheads were found on the surface, and one was unearthed from at section of a trench with no clear historical context. Moreover, we should not forget that the arrowheads with a very similar forms were in use for very long times although they had been utilized as early as the 6th century B.C.
In any case, it is clear that there is a very limited amount of military equipment related to Tepecik’s defense system of the 6th-5th centuries B.C. The questions of why the military equipment was mostly found on the surface and why it is very few in numbers can be explained by the function of Tepecik as an active defense zone for centuries, undergoing many changes throughout this long period. Thus, the north fortification wall and the adjacent bastion that had been built north of the upper plane of Tepecik, show that the defense system underwent a tremendous change in the middle of the 4th century B.C. A good number of dwellings were discovered during the excavations conducted to the south of the north wall. And there is large bedrock in the south of these dwellings. It seems that the majority of the older constructions in the Tepecik settlement were demolished down to the foundation during the extensive architectural alterations beginning in the middle of the 4th century B.C. with the exception of the few aforementioned buildings from the 6th-5th centuries B.C., and new buildings were constructed from scratch. In this sense, the rarity of military equipment pertaining to earlier periods than the middle of the 4th century B.C. and the location of the finds must be related to this process of architectural change at the site.
Some of the military equipment found in the Tepecik settlement was unearthed in contexts dated to the second half of the 4th century B.C. In the beginning of this period, i.e. the middle of the 4th century B.C., turbulent times had occurred as a result of a series of intermeshed events that called forth tremendous changes in the political arena of Lycia. After the Persians in the 360s B.C. suppressed the rebellion referred to as “the Great Satraps’ Revolt” in the literature, the hegemony of local rulers, came to an end in Lycia. The governance of all Lycian cities was given to Mausolus, the Satrap of Caria[144], thereby starting the rule of the Hecatomnid Dynasty of Caria in Lycia, which continued until the campaign of Alexander the Great[145]. The influence of this process of governmental change in Patara can be seen in a limited number of literary and epigraphic sources, as well as in archaeological data and especially architectural elements of defense[146]. Located on Doğucasarı Hill in the north of the Tepecik settlement and the east of the city, the “independent bastions”[147] seem associated with the military policy of the Hecatomnid Dynasty who ruled Patara for a short period on behalf of the Persians. During excavations conducted in the North Bastion, metal military equipment was found in a burnt layer along with an in-situ ceramic group. One of these military tools is a lead sling bullet (cat. 52) with the inscription “ΑΛΕΞΑΝΔΡΟΥ” on one side and “ΦΙΛΙΠΠΟΥ” on the other. E. Dündar and N. K. Rauh emphasize that these names might be pointing to Philip II of Macedon and his successor Alexander III. Therefore, the destruction and burning of the North Bastion and the surrounding garrison base most probably resulted from an attack that occurred during the military campaign of Alexander the Great (334/333 B.C.) in Lycia[148]. Arrian of Nicomedia who wrote about the Persian wars and life of Alexander III in his “Anabasis of Alexander”[149] states that Alexander’s army did not encounter any resistance when entering Lycia, and took control of 30 minor settlements including Pinara, Xanthos and Patara subsequent to their surrender. In that case, there should not have been any engagement in Patara, just like in all the other cities in Lycia. However, the fire that occurred in Tepecik settlement and the ceramic finds, arrowheads and especially the sling bullet recovered from the burnt layer do not cohere with Arrian’s account written at the beginning of the 2nd century A.D. In addition to the sling bullet, the bronze arrowheads (cat. 10, 15), iron arrowheads (cat. 26, 27) and iron bolt-heads / spear butts (cat. 45, 46), which were found in North Bastion, must be directly related to the said battle that was fought in 334/333 B.C.
Patara bore witness to the conflict among the successors of Alexander the Great concerning the rule of the empire. It is known that the southeastern cities of Anatolia repeatedly changed hands between Antigonus Monophthalmus and Ptolemy I Soter between 313 and 309 B.C. Furthermore, Antigonus’ son Demetrius Poliorcetes also ruled Patara for a short time (309-304 B.C.)[150]. And the bronze arrowheads (cat. 2, 11, 12, 16), iron arrowheads (cat. 28-33), iron javelin heads (cat. 47-49), and the curved iron dagger (cat. 58) which were found in the strata of the first architectural phase of the North Bastion and the military posts situated south of the north fortification wall, can be dated to the second half of the 4th century B.C. Therefore, we can say that the military equipment must be linked to the eastern campaigns of Alexander the Great, or more probably, to the Wars of the Diadochi.
It was revealed that certain alterations had been made in both the general defense system of the city and the defense system of the Tepecik settlement associated with it since the beginning of the Hellenistic Period. It was detected that various renovations and additions had been made particularly to the fortification walls surrounding Tepecik and the northeastern fortification wall of the city during the reign of Ptolemy II Philadelphus (283-246 B.C.). The fortification wall which completely surrounds the eastern part of the upper plane of Tepecik with its 2-meter width and 40-meter length is also associated with Ptolemys rule in the city. During this period, not only the structures of defense but also numerous dwellings were rebuilt on the upper plane of Tepecik, creating a garrison. A good number of military tools were unearthed in the strata pertaining to the first half of the 3rd century B.C. during the excavations conducted in this new residency area. The bronze arrowheads (cat. 17-22), iron arrowheads (cat. 34-40), and lead sling bullets (cat. 53-54) must be related to the aforementioned wars of the Ptolemaic Garrison period[151]. A trigger claw with the “skendylion” end of a catapult (cat. 51) may have also belonged to this period.
Representing one of the most distinctive characteristics of Roman military equipment, the pilum was almost regarded as synonymous with the Roman army[152]. In this context, the pilum (cat. 1) which is dated between the end of the 3rd century B.C. and the middle of the 2nd century B.C. provides significant evidence of Roman military activity in the Eastern Mediterranean region, particularly Lycia. It is understood that the Seleucid ruler Antiochus III conquered Lycia in its entirety in 197 B.C. during a period when Eastern Mediterranean power politics once again saw a change in equilibrium following the sovereignty of the Ptolemaic Dynasty in Patara/Lycia. It can be seen that, especially from the beginning of the 2nd century B.C., Rome was also part of this power struggle as a prominent player. After many battles, the struggle that had begun between Romans and Seleucids in 194 B.C. came to an end with the crushing victory of the Romans in the battle fought near Magnesia ad Sypylum. And the Seleucids withdrew from the whole Western Anatolian region in accordance with the Treaty of Apamea in 188 B.C. It can be seen that Rome and its allies organized numerous attacks on Patara to seize its harbor which served as an important base for the Seleucid fleet during the battles between Antiochus III and Rome, but none of these attempts succeeded[153]. It is also known that, after the Battle of Magnesia, 50 Seleucid warships anchored in the Patara harbor were destroyed, and the city was captured[154]. In this sense, we can say that the pilum unearthed in Tepecik is most probably associated with the military mobilization of the aforementioned period.
Contrary to the examples discussed above, certain layers in which some of the metal military tools were found do not yield specific historical information in Tepecik. A number of bronze arrowheads (cat. 3, 4, 6) and an iron catapult arrowhead/spear butt (cat. 44) were unearthed in the 4th-3rd century B.C. strata in a general sense. They must have been used for military purposes between the mid-4th century B.C. and the end of the 3rd century B.C., as mentioned above. The aforementioned pilum and the javelin head (cat. 50) are the latest military tools that were uncovered in the Tepecik settlement. It is understood that the defensive constructions started in the 6th century B.C. and ended at the end of the 3rd century B.C. in the Tepecik settlement, and these buildings were not in use during the Roman Imperial Period. Some of the military equipment (cat. 23-25, 41, 55-57) were found on the surface. Some of them were recovered around the tower belonging to the Late Antique Period (cat. 42, 43). This tower, which was used as an outpost, bears witness to the last periods of the military use of Tepecik settlement.
CATALOGUE
FIGURES
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